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Evaluation and Management of Infantile Hemangioma: An Overview
Infantile hemangiomas are the most common tumors of infancy. These harmless birth marks appear soon after birth, proliferate for 8 to 18 months, and then steadily regress over next 5 to 8 years, leaving normal or slightly blemished skin.1 The incidence of infantile hemangiomas is 10% to 12% in Caucasian infants and lower in dark-skinned infants.2 The prevalence of infantile hemangioma is approximately 1% to 3% after the first few days of life and approximately 10% by the end of the first year.3 Management of hemangiomas spans various specialties including dermatology and plastic, reconstructive, and pediatric surgery. Hemangiomas occur on the skin surface and resemble or can actually become true wounds if ulceration occurs; knowledge of this condition is imperative. To uncover some of the mysteries of the disease, recent advances in understanding its pathophysiology, and various emerging diagnostic and therapeutic modalities, a literature search of PubMed was conducted of English-language articles published between 1985 to 2006 using the term hemangioma in conjunction with types, pathophysiology, treatment, and complications.
Etiopathogenesis
Hemangiomas are perhaps the least understood of all tumors seen in infancy.4 The Greek physician Galen believed that vascular birthmarks of a baby were due to the emotions of the mother while the baby was in utero. Virchow, father of cellular pathology, designated all vascular anomalies angiomas. Wegner, Virchow’s student, proposed the nomenclature lymphangioma.2
A hemangioma comprises densely packed capillaries composed of endothelial cells and pericytes expanding in a lobular pattern.5 Stimulators of angiogenesis such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), monocytochrome attractant protein-1, and insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2) are upregulated5 in proliferating hemangiomas. Genetic mutations also have been found to cause proliferation and dysregulation of angiogenesis.6 Most hemangiomas occur sporadically; however, sometimes they appear to segregate as an autosomal dominant trait with high penetrance. They have been found to be linked to chromosome 5q32-33.7
Common expression of immunohistochemical markers (eg, glucose uptake transporter-1 [GLUT-1], merosin, FcRII, and Lewis Y antigen) may suggest that hemangiomas either derive or share a common precursor to the placenta.8 This belief is supported by the fact that chorionic villous sampling increases the risk of hemangioma.6
It has been shown that infantile hemangioma cells are LYVE-1, VEGF-receptor, and CD31- and CD34-positive similar to the embryonal cardinal vein, suggesting that these cells are arrested in an immature stage of vascular development, which leads to their rapid proliferation and development.5,9 As the endothelial cells differentiate, an influx of mast cells, other various cells, and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase (TIMP) occurs. The TIMPs, interferon (IFN), and transformation growth factor (TGF) produced by mast cells terminate the endothelial cell proliferation and passively induce involution and senescence of endothelial cells. Clinically, hemangioma shows early growth followed by spontaneous involution over time.
Clinical features. Infantile hemangiomas appear during the neonatal period, usually within 2 weeks after delivery. They are more common in females than males (3:1 to 5:1 ratio).10 Size usually varies from 0.5 cm to 5 cm. They can be extensive (ie, involve a large area or appear in many locations simultaneously). They have a characteristic pattern with early and rapid growth (proliferation) and then slow involution. Most hemangiomas are solitary but some infants can have more than one lesion. Superficial hemangiomas are recognized by their bright color (see Figure 1). Deep hemangiomas can present with normal to bluish skin hue related to location.
The life cycle of hemangiomas features three phases – proliferative, plateau, and involution. The proliferative phase begins after the appearance of the hemangioma and usually lasts 1 year. During the proliferative phase, the skin becomes irregular, raised, and bright crimson. The hemangioma then enters the plateau phase where growth slows; this can last 1 to 8 years. After the plateau phase, hemangiomas enter the involuting phase in which the color fades and the skin gradually pales with or without scarring. Literature review suggests that normal skin is restored in about 50% to 60% of children11; the other 40% to 50% of hemangiomas leave permanent changes that include telangiectasia, yellowish hypoelastic patches, scars, and dermal atrophy (see Figure 2).
Location. Hemangiomas are most commonly located on the head and neck (60%),11 followed by trunk and extremities. They also can occur at extra-cutaneous sites including liver, gastrointestinal tract, central nervous system, pancreas, gall bladder, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lung, urinary bladder, and adrenal glands.
Classification. Margileth12 has classified infantile hemangiomas into three categories: strawberry, cavernous, and mixed. To eliminate some confusion, hemangiomas now are classified as superficial (strawberry type of Margileth – present in superficial layers of skin); deep (cavernous type of Margileth – present in deeper layers of skin); and mixed. Recently, hemangiomas have been further classified in the following manner13:
• Localized – hemangiomas that seem to grow from a single focal point or are localized to an area without any apparent linear or developmental configuration
• Segmental – hemangiomas or clusters of hemangiomas with a configuration demonstrating linear and/or geographic location over a specific cutaneous territory, usually associated with at least some plaque-like features
• Indeterminate – hemangiomas not readily classified as either localized or segmental types
• Multifocal –10 or more cutaneous hemangiomas.
Infantile hemangiomas must be differentiated from congenital hemangioma (CH), which can be classified as rapidly involuting congenital hemangioma (RICH) and non-involuting congenital hemangioma (NICH).14 Both are rare types of hemangioma15; incidence data are lacking. The incidence of RICH/NICH at the authors’ center is approximately 1% of all hemangiomas seen; NICH and RICH are almost equally distributed by gender and are usually solitary.15 They have a similar average diameter and a predilection for the same anatomical locations – usually the head or limbs near a joint. By comparison, infantile hemangiomas occur more frequently in girls, their morphology is more variable, they often occur in multiple, and they may appear anywhere on the body.16
RICH. Tumors diagnosed as RICH are fully grown in utero and do not undergo postnatal growth. They usually involute by age 14 months, leaving either atrophic or redundant skin. They may present as violaceous tumors with ecstatic veins, gray tumors with multiple tiny telangiectasias surrounding pale halo, or violaceous flat infiltrative tumors. Histopathologically, they present with small to large capillaries with moderately plump endothelial cells and pericytes. The involuting form is characterized by fibrous tissue and lobular loss with large and abnormal draining channels.17,18
NICH. An involuting congenital hemangioma persists throughout the person’s life. These hemangiomas are rare and present as solitary pink to purple tumors, often with coarse telangiectasia on overlying skin. They are warm, round to ovoid in shape, and have a central or peripheral pallor. They grow proportionately with the child but do not involute. Histopathological exam reveals lobular collection of small, thin-walled vessels with a large, often stellate central vessel. Interlobular areas contain predominantly dilated often dysplastic veins; arteries also are increased in number. Small arteries are seen shunting directly into the lobular vessel or into an abnormal extralobular vein.19
Differential diagnosis. Various tumors and tumor-like conditions should be considered when assessing/diagnosing infantile hemangioma.
Vascular tumors. Vascular tumors include RICH, NICH, Kaposiform hemangioendothelioma (KHE), and tufted angioma (TA) (see Table 1). Recognition of congenital, nonprogressive hemangioma as an entity biologically distinct from infantile hemangioma has important implications for patient management. Rapidly involuting congenital hemangiomas generally involute spontaneously while NICH usually requires a surgical procedure.20 Kaposiform hemangiothelioma and TA are histopathologically well characterized and both have proliferating lymphatic endothelial cells. Both are related to platelet entrapment, thrombocytopenia, and life-threatening Kasabach-Merritt syndrome (KMS),21 a rare disease, usually of infants, in which a vascular tumor leads to decreased platelet counts and sometimes other bleeding problems when the tumors are large or growing rapidly. The combination of vascular tumor and consumptive thrombocytopenia defines KMS. Tumors can be found on the trunk, upper and lower extremities, retroperitoneum, and cervical and facial areas.22 Infants with KMS do not have a true hemangioma; rather, the affected area is the result of KH or TA.23
Other vascular malformations to consider include arteriovenous malformation (AVM), lymphatic malformation (LM), venous malformation (VM), and capillary malformation (CM) (see Table 2).
Non-vascular considerations. Non-vascular benign and malignant tumors such as angiosarcoma, infantile fibrosarcoma, infantile myofibromatosis, and rhabdomyosarcoma dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans also must be considered.
Associated anomalies. Hemangiomas are found (albeit rarely) to be associated with certain malformations. These include posterior fossa malformations, cervicofacial hemangiomas, arterial anomalies, cardiac defects, eye anomalies, and sternal clefting or supraumbilical raphe – commonly grouped as PHACES24; perineal hemangioma, external genitalia malformations, lipomyelomeningocele, vesicorenal abnormalities, imperforate anus, and skin problems – commonly known as PELVIS25; and recently described spinal dysraphism, anogenital anomalies, cutaneous anomalies, and renal and urologic anomalies associated with angioma of lumbosacral localization – known as SACRAL.26 The PELVIS and SACRAL malformations are only recently described; no incidence studies have been published. The description of PHACES appears mainly in case reports.27,28 Of note: PHACES has been found to be associated with hypopituitarism.24
A comparative summary of common characteristics of hemangioma and tumors is presented in Table 3. 
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of hemangioma is clinical. The role of diagnostic modalities such as ultrasound and others occurs in the following situations: 1) at the time of surgery if needed to ascertain the extent of hemangioma; 2) to see the associated extracutaneous involvement if suspected; and 3) to differentiate hemangioma from vascular malformation where questioned.
Diagnostic modalities. Ultrasound. Ultrasound is a non-invasive, inexpensive diagnostic method but cannot evaluate the full extent of hemangioma. However, it has been shown that lesions demonstrating high vessel density (more than five per square centimeter) and a peak arterial Doppler shift exceeding 2 kHz were correctly diagnosed as hemangiomas, facilitating differentiation from other vascular conditions.29
Computerized tomography. Computerized tomography (CT) is important in defining the extent of these lesions, both as a guide for the surgeon and for conservative follow-up. Characteristically, the CT is able to facilitate observation of homogeneous enhancement, absence of peripheral edema, and fat stranding to guide diagnosis of the few patients with unusual clinical presentations.30
Magnetic resonance imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is useful for demonstrating the precise anatomic extent of any vascular anomaly and its relationship to adjacent soft tissues; MRI is superior to CT for this purpose. This modality also can differentiate between hemangioma and other vascular lesions. Magnetic resonance imaging has been shown to be ideal for triaging patients with vascular anomalies for appropriate management, including observation, endovascular therapy, or surgical excision.31
Recent controlled clinical studies32,33 have explored use of urinary bFGF and serum VEGF as a marker of hemangioma proliferation, differentiation, and management. Both have been found to be helpful in differentiating hemangiomas from vascular malformations, staging hemangiomas, judging the efficacy of steroid therapy, and evaluating follow-up criteria for hemangiomas.
Thyroid function test. Thyroid function test (TFT) may be necessary in cases involving large hemangiomas because these tumors have been shown to cause hypothyroidism33 due to the presence of type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase activity in the hemangioma tissue that can degrade thyroid hormone.34 Hemogram and liver function tests are required for liver or other visceral hemangioma.
Treatment
Hemangiomas, although often small at birth, enter a proliferative phase 10 to 15 days after birth in which growth may be rapid and unpredictable. Furthermore, involution often takes many years, with attendant psychological sequelae to the child. This is aggravated by the fact that most hemangiomas affect the head and neck and are visible and difficult to conceal. Thus, treatment is required.35
Corticosteroids. Corticosteroids are the mainstay of treatment. Although their mode of action is incompletely understood, they been shown in animal studies to inhibit interleukin 6 (IL 6) and VEGF via glucocorticoid receptors in rat cornea.36 Corticosteroids also inhibit phospholipase A2, which releases arachidonic acid, the precursor to the proangiogenic prostaglandin.37 In vitro study38 has shown corticosteroids inhibit metalloproteinases that promote angiogenesis by breaking down the extracellular matrix. In animal studies of adrenalectomized rats,39 steroids have been shown to sensitize the vascular bed to vasoconstricting agents.
Corticosteroids can be used systematically, intralesionally, or topically. The standard-of-care40 oral agent is prednisolone, 2 to 3 mg/kg, for up to 6 months41; however, the authors have used it in doses of 1 to 2 mg/kg in the same time frame with good results as documented in a 10-year case series.42 Triamcinolone is administered intralesionally in monthly doses of 1 to 2 mg/kg41 for up to six injections. Although safety and effectiveness data are insufficient, topical use of clobetasol has been described with good results in a retrospective clinical case series43 (see Figure 3). Additionally, in clinical study especially of superficial hemangiomas,44 the authors have noted the beneficial effect of topical mometasone.
Complications. Complications of systemic corticosteroidal therapy include cushingoid facies, personality changes, gastric irritation, infection, weight gain, hypertension, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and retarded growth.45 These complications are usually short-term and, in the authors’ experience, no serious long-term complications are seen in doses of 1 to 3 mg/kg. Relatively minor complications related to intralesional steroid use include hypopigmentation, cutaneous atrophy, infection46-48; major complications, which are extremely rare, include growth retardation, Cushing’s syndrome, and anaphylactic shock.48 Occlusion of the retinal artery has been reported49 and high injection pressure can be problematic.50 Topical steroids have been associated with skin atrophy, striae, and telangiectasia, among other conditions.51
Interferon alpha 2a (IFN alpha 2a). Interferon is used as second-line drug when the condition does not respond to steroids. Given in doses of 2 to 3 million units/m2 body surface area (BSA), interferon can be used during both the proliferative and involuting phases to reduce the size of the hemangioma. A non-randomized trial and meta-analysis52,53 have demonstrated 50% to 90% regression in approximately 60% of treated patients but include reports of neurological complications like spastic diplegia, especially in first year of life.
Bleomycin. Used intralesionally, bleomycin acts by inducing fibrosis and has been shown in a case series54 of 14 patients to achieve 60% to 90% response in 85% of patients, working especially well in complicated hemangiomas. Complications include scarring and hyperpigmentation.
Other non-steroidal agents. Other agents that have been found useful for lesions not responding to steroids include vincristine55 and cyclophosphamide,56 according to a prospective study and one case report, respectively. Use of immunomodulators is at present in the experimental phase; noteworthy among these are becaplermin 0.01% gel,57 a recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor used topically to achieve healing of ulcers in ulcerated hemangioma (not the hemangioma itself); and imiquimod 5% cream,58 an immune response modifier.
Laser therapy. Lasers have been used to treat hemangioma. A case series59 involving 548 patients has shown that small and/or superficial hemangiomas are the most responsive as compared to the commonly used flashlamp-pumped pulsed dye laser (FPDL). Overall, the role of laser therapy in treatment is controversial and needs further evaluation.60
Surgery. Surgery is used to improve cosmetic results on residual masses persisting after medication. Excision during the proliferative phase is not recommended due to the tendency of hemangiomas to bleed excessively when disrupted.
Complications
Ulceration. Ulceration is the most common complication of hemangioma. It occurs in 5% to 15% of cases,61 is more common in female patients,62 and can occur spontaneously or during the course of treatment. Ulcerations usually occur on facial and perineal lesions and in large (> 6 cm approximately) hemangiomas63 (see Figure 4). Treatment includes local wound care, infection management, specific therapeutic modalities (systemic and intralesional steroids, FPDL, IFN alpha 2a), and pain management.
Visual obstruction. Hemangiomas can obstruct vision related to the visual axis, astigmatism from direct pressure on the anterior segment from eyelid involvement, and/or unilateral myopia (see Figure 5). Strabismus can result either secondary to amblyopia or from paralysis of extra-ocular muscles infiltrated by an orbital hemangioma if treatment is not initiated. Ophthalmic consultation is needed.65
Airway obstruction. Large hemangiomas may press on airways (see Figure 6). Treatment consists of steroids, IFN, and other modalities. Intubation or tracheostomy may be required.66
Output failure. Large visceral hemangiomas can cause high output cardiac failure because of arteriovenous shunting, leading to greater venous return and extra load on the heart.2
Psychological impact. Hemangiomas can have great psychological impact. In a prospective study13 of 25 children, parents of children with hemangiomas experienced feelings of disbelief, panic, or fear associated with the growth of the lesion, as well as feelings of sadness, guilt, personal shame, and sense of aloneness. Public reaction also creates problems and may force parents to confront varied aspects of social stigmatization. Physicians are faced with specific challenges in providing effective anticipatory guidance and support to parents. The evolution of the hemangioma, combined with a general prognosis, should be discussed. Counseling has been found to be important for both parents and children. Serial photographs showing the resolution of the hemangioma can be quite compelling and encouraging.11
Prognosis
The majority of uncomplicated hemangiomas involute. Residual changes that persist can be addressed through surgery for cosmetic or psychological concerns.
Conclusion
Infantile hemangioma is a benign condition with significant cosmetic and psychological impact. Complete assessment must be performed to differentiate hemangioma from other related conditions and to provide appropriate treatment. Complications such as ulceration, visual and airway obstruction, output failure, and psychological concerns also necessitate treatment that can involve wound care, infection and pain management, therapeutic modalities, and appropriate specialty and surgical consultation and intervention. Additional research is needed to enhance understanding of the pathophysiology and role of genetics, which remain incompletely understood. Studies regarding the relationship of CH to infantile hemangioma also are needed. Emerging treatment options that include interferon, vincristine, cyclophosphamide, bleomycin, imiquimod, becaplermin, and laser therapy, as well as evolving diagnostic modalities, should be evaluated in controlled studies to determine their effects and side effects. Overall, the majority of patients with hemangiomas have a positive prognosis.
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